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Animals of Wind Cave
National parks are great places to see wildlife. However, that has not always been the case. In the early 1900's many animal populations were nearing extinction because of habitat destruction or hunting pressures. You couldn't see them in the wild or in national parks.
At one time, more than 60 million bison roamed this continent. By the early 1900's, fewer than 1,000 were left. some were in zoos, a scattering on private ranches and a few were still wild in places like Yellowstone, but most wild bison had been killed.
People noticed what was happening and took action. Ranchers started private herds and zoos began protecting species at risk. Conservationists and hunters realized that action must also be taken to protect the animal's habitats or we might never see then in the wild again.
The bison that arrived in 1913 were a gift from the New York Zoological Society through the American Bison Society and were the beginning of an attempt to return these animals to a part of their former range. Six additional bison came in June 1916 from Yellowstone National Park. And in the late 1960's, one bull was received from Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial Park to enhance the gene pool. Today's bison are descendants of these animals.
In March 1914, twenty-one Rocky Mountain Elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni) were shipped from Jackson Hole, Wyoming to reestablish an elk herd in the Black Hills. Due to the stress of the trip, only fourteen animals survived the trip. In February 1916, twenty-five more elk arrived from Yellowstone National Park.
Another animal severely threatened at the turn of the century was the pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana). To aid in their restoration, thirteen pronghorn were introduced into the game preserve. These animals, donated by the Boone and Crockett Club of New York, arrived from Alberta, Canada, on 14 Oct 1914. Two years later, nine more arrived from Canada and in 1924 a buck arrived from Reno, Nevada.
The administrators of the preserve had to learn management of "wild" game animals under semi-natural conditions by trial and error. In the first year of the Game Preserve, bison and elk were fed hay to supplement their diets, but they quickly adapted to eating only prairie grasses. These animals had few natural predators and their populations grew rapidly. By 1920 the warden estimated the elk herd at two hundred and the bison herd at one hundred.
The pronghorn, however, were another story. By 1919, the herd consisted of only eighteen animals. Pronghorn seemed more susceptible to harsh winters, disease, and stress than the bison and elk. The artificial diet of corn, oats, alfalfa, and hay apparently did not supply all of their needed nutrients. To find the reason for their failure to thrive, carcasses were sent to Washington D.C. for examination. In addition, predators were threatening the herd. The preserve did not have enough space to allow the pronghorn to outrun their predators. "War" was declared on all predators in the park. By 1921 almost 600 predatory animals - bobcats, wolves, mountain lions, coyotes, eagles, and even skunks, badgers, and raccoons, were destroyed in an effort to save the pronghorn antelope.
Many of these problems declined in the 1930's when the amount of pasture was increased. The increased acreage provided room for the pronghorn to evade predators and for more prairie grass rangeland. But by 1951, poaching and severe winters had again reduced the pronghorn herd to forty-nine does and one buck. Later that year, twelve pronghorn from Yellowstone National Park were introduced to augment and stabilize the herd. In 1963 the population reached a high of 350 animals. To protect their habitat about seventy-five pronghorn were relocated to Custer State Park.
Since that time the pronghorn population has declined and now fluctuates between 60 and 125 with animals routinely moving in and out of the park. In order to assure a permanent healthy pronghorn population at Wind Cave National Park, research is needed to determine the stability of the gene pool and to understand the seasonal diet of these animals.
In the late 1800's, the area had been extensively altered by ranching and farming. The land was affected by heavy grazing and by the concentration of livestock in watering and corral areas. In addition, much of the flat terrain with deep soils was cultivated for hay and grain crops. With the establishment of the Game Preserve and the small number of animals in the preserve, less pressure was put on the range and it was able to recover.
The managers of the Game Preserve not only had to learn to manage the wildlife, they also had to learn to manage the rangeland that supported the animals. In 1929, the Game Preserve added a second game pasture of 3,600 acres and an exhibition pasture was constructed near the park headquarters. Lack of water in the small game preserve was a problem. Another project was the construction of a dam on Cold Stream Creek to create an artificial lake to provide a better water supply. However, the dam was built over permeable rock and never held water well.
On 01 Jul 1935, control of the Game Preserve was transferred to the Department of the Interior. The Wind Cave National Game Preserve was abolished and Wind Cave National Park began a resource management program. As part of this program the Wind Cave Civilian Conservation Corps fenced the entire park area, expanding the range of the animals to 11,723 acres.
In order to raise revenues, grazing permits were still being issued to local ranchers. As the bison and elk herd sizes increased pressure on the land increased and the range again became stressed and overgrazed. In an attempt to solve the problem seeding the range was initiated in the 1930's and continued into the 1950's. Managers also recognized the overgrazing being done to the range by wildlife and on June 16, 1938 the Secretary of the Interior received permission from Congress to sell or dispose of surplus animals. On 01 May 1939 the last grazing permits were canceled and a bison and elk reduction program was started.
The park size increased again in 1946 with the addition of the Custer Recreation Demonstration Area and in 1987 with the purchase of 232 acres, bringing the total park area to 28,295 acres in 1991. As the park increased in size and resources, the need for the extra water source created by the dam in 1929 declined. In 1989 a culvert was placed in the base of the dam to allow Cold Stream to flow down its natural drainage.
To the general public, bison are one of the park's most visible forms of wildlife. The bison population of the park functions as a single herd during their mating season through the summer months. They divide into smaller herds during fall and early spring to graze all rangeland within the park. Throughout most of the year, mature bulls remain separate from the herd. Bulls are most often observed in small groups or as single individuals dispersed throughout the park.
The bison herd sizes have been managed for many years. Because of the drought conditions in the 1930's and 1940's, when herd sizes were large and range conditions were poor, bison were occasionally fed. After permission was received from Congress, culling of the herd took place. Generally only old or sick animals were destroyed. Because of their endangerment, most of the remaining park bison were transferred to Custer State Park.
In 1961, Custer State Park initiated a program to protect their bison herd by inoculating them against the disease brucellosis. Brucellosis, a disease found commonly in bison, elk and other mammals, sometimes causes the fetus to be aborted. This disease was first noticed in the Wind Cave herd in the 1940's and by 1961 the herd showed a high incidence of infection. Consequently the park could no longer transfer live animals to Custer State Park. Excess bison had to be slaughtered. The animals were corralled, slaughtered within the park and the meat, which is unaffected by the disease, was distributed to various Indian tribes through the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
In the late 1970's Wind Cave established a brucellosis inoculation program and attempted to eradicate the disease within the bison herd. The program was not strictly maintained and was therefore not fully successful and by 1982, the Wind Cave herd was again carrying the disease.
In November of 1982 the state of South Dakota quarantined the Wind Cave bison herd. With the help of several agencies, the park initiated a second eradication program in 1983. Lifting of the quarantine required a one hundred percent negative brucellosis testing of the entire Wind Cave herd. During the 1984 round-up, the park destroyed infected animals and inoculated all others against brucellosis.
American Bison
Perhaps no other animal symbolizes the West as dramatically as the American bison. In prehistoric times millions of these animals roamed the North American Continent from the Great Slave Lake in the north, south into Mexico and from coast to coast. No one knows how many bison there were, but the naturalist, Ernest Thompson Seton, estimated their numbers at sixty million when Columbus landed. They were part of the largest community of wild animals that the world has ever known.
Bison are part of the family Bovidae, to which cattle and goats belong. They are not in the same family that Asian and African buffalo are. However, because they resembled these old world animals, the early explorers called them by that name. Although it is a misnomer, the name buffalo is still used interchangeably with bison. One of the physical differences between the old world buffalo and the American bison is the large shoulder hump of the bison. This hump, along with a broad, massive head, short, thick neck and small hindquarters give the animal its rugged appearance.
The color and character of the bison's fur varies with the season. A mature bull in winter has a dark brown to black coat. The length of the hair measures up to sixteen inches on the forehead, then inches on the forelegs, and only eight inches on the hindquarters. No wonder the bison, unlike domestic cattle, face into storms.
The best description of a bison's temperament is UNPREDICTABLE. They usually appear peaceful, unconcerned, even lazy, yet they may attack anything, often without warning or apparent reason. To a casual observer, a grazing bison appears slow and clumsy, but he can outrun, out turn, and traverse rougher terrain than all but the fleetest horse. They can move a speeds of up to thirty-five miles per hour, and cover long distances at a deceptively fast lumbering gallop.
Their most obvious weapon is the horns that both male and female have. But their head, with its massive skull, can be used as a battering ram, effectively using the momentum produced by two thousand pounds moving at thirty miles per hour! The hind legs can also be used to kill or maim with devastating effect. At the time bison ran wild, they were rated second only to the Alaska brown bear as a potential killer, more dangerous than the grizzly bear. In the words of early naturalists, they were a dangerous, savage animal who feared no other animal, and in prime condition could best any foe. A bull with lowered head, snorting and pawing the ground, with tail stiffly upraised, conveys a universal warning of danger to all nearby that is impossible to ignore!
The rutting, or mating, season lasts from June through September with peak activity in July and August. At this time, the older bulls rejoin the herd and fights often take place between bulls. The heard exhibits much restlessness during breeding season the animals are belligerent, unpredictable and most dangerous.
Calves, born nine to nine and one-half months later in April or May, generally weigh thirty to seventy pounds. They have reddish-brown fur and do not have the conspicuous hump of the adult. After a few months, the fur begins to change to chocolate brown and the hump begins to develop.
This May 50 to 60 bison calves will be born to Wind Cave's herd of about 350 bison. Most cows give birth to one calf each year. Two or three days after the birth the seventy pound, red-coated youngsters will roam with the herd. As bison are gregarious creatures, group protection of calves creates a safe environment. A bison is fully mature at two years.
Other activities of the bison include rubbing, rolling, and wallowing. Wallowing creates a saucer-like depression called a wallow. This wallow was once a common feature of the plains; usually these wallows are dust bowls without any vegetation.
Bison have poor eyesight but acute hearing and an excellent sense of smell. The sounds they make range from a pig-like grunt to an aggressive bellow.
Much has been written concerning the economic value of the bison to the American Indian. The bison sustained a way of life, providing food, clothing, shelter, and fuel. Extermination of the bison spelled the doom of American Indian independence.
In 1800, it was estimated there were forty million bison, by 1883, there were no wild bison in the United States. By 1900, there were less than six hundred left in North America. The majority of the forty million animals were killed in a fifty-five year period, beginning in 1830. Many people denounced the slaughter; few did anything to stop it. Fortunately, a small, devoted group of conservationists managed to save a few hundred. The bison we see and enjoy today were raised from these few survivors.
Coyote
There are several predators in the Park, including bobcats, eagles, badgers, and cougars, but the coyotes are the most easily seen.
Most research has shown that coyotes usually feed on small mammals and birds. They do not feed heavily on livestock or larger ungulates, like elk, deer, or bison unless the animal is already dead or dying.
Little is known about the predatory behavior of wild coyotes, but a sudden hop or pounce is most often used for capturing small animals, like shrew or mice, where group effort may be used in the prairie dog towns. Coyotes depend on various senses to locate their prey, with sight, hearing, and smell being most important-usually in that order.
Coyotes are small mammals, about the size of a medium-sized dog. They vary widely in coloration, ranging from an almost pure gray to a red-brown. The fur is generally much thicker in winter-giving the animal a heavier appearance, with the summer coat being much shorter and lighter.
A wide variety of habitats all across the United States can be called home for the coyote. They are found in both the grasslands and pine forest here in the Park. Each individual coyote or coyote pack has a home territory that is used on a regular basis, but not actively defended except during mating periods and when the coyote pups are in their dens.
The dens of coyotes can also be found in a variety of places, including rocky ledges, brushy slopes, hollow logs, even small caves. Sometimes the shelters of other small animals are used. They may even use the same den from year to year. However, it is not uncommon for coyotes to move to another den early in the spring while their pups are quite young. The reason for these moves is not really understood, but it may have something to do with disturbances near the original den or possibly an infestation of parasites like fleas or lice. These moves are generally not far because the mother coyote has to carry each pup, one by one, to the new den. One of the longest recorded moves was 5.4 miles / 8 kilometers.
Coyotes mate only once a year, between March and April. Sixty days after mating, the female delivers 5 to 10 brown, furry pups. The pups are born blind and helpless about two months later. The young are cared for by the mother and other helpers, usually siblings from a previous year. The adult males of the pack help rear the young by bringing food to the mother and later, after weaning, to the pups themselves. The pups emerge form the den in about three weeks, playful and ready to learn from their parents how to fend for themselves. This learning relationship often lasts for about a year. Coyotes may be active throughout the day, but they are more easily seen early in the morning and around sunset.
Elk
At one time, the American elk was the most widely distributed member of the deer family on the North American Continent. They were found from Mexico to Alberta and from sea to sea, except on the southern coastal plains and in the Great Basin. However, as the pioneers moved west, hunting took its toll. Elk began to disappear from the settled regions until only remnant herds remained in the Rocky Mountains, parts of the Pacific Northwest, and Canada. In fact, the Eastern elk, which historically roamed the Black Hills, are extinct. In 1914, Rocky Mountain elk from Jackson Hole, Wyoming, were introduced into the Park.
The name "elk" was given to the second largest member of the deer family by early explorers because they resembled the elk or moose of Europe. Because the American elk is not very closely related biologically to the European elk, the American Indian term "Wapiti" is sometimes used interchangeable to identify the animal.
Like other members of the deer family, elk have distinct summer and winter coats. The elk's summer coat is a deep, reddish-brown with an almost orange-colored rump patch. This coat becomes a more gray-brown with a cream-colored rump patch during the winter.
The antler of the adult Rocky Mountain bull elk consists of a long beam, sweeping up and back, usually with six tines. The average set weighs about 30 pounds. During summer, an adult bull's antlers are growing and are covered with a live, blood-carrying tissue called "velvet." When the antlers are full-grown and the velvet has been rubbed off, the elk are left with the shiny and hard rack typical of bull elk in the fall.
The first set of antlers of a young bull begins to grow when he is almost a year old. They are only spikes about 10 to 24 inches long. These, like the adult's antlers, are shed in the early spring. By the time a young bull is four years old, he usually has the six-point antler characteristic of a mature bull.
In early September, the mating season begins with harem formation and bugling. Bugling is the term used to describe the call made by an adult male. The call begins on a medium clear note, rises gradually to a high pitch, and ends in a shrill scream followed by a series of grunts. While not the type of call one might expect from an animal of this size, once heard, the bugle is unmistakable. It is one of the truly wild sounds to be heard on this continent.
A single calf, born in late may or early June, weighs about 30 pounds. At this time, the cow tends to stay away from other elk until her calf can travel. For protection from predators, the calf has a spotted coat and an instinct which causes it to lie completely still when danger approaches. By about one or two weeks the calf is able to keep up with the mother and they rejoin the cow/calf herd.
The summer is a time when elk are seen in large herds and are generally inactive during the day. These large herds are more easily seen at dusk or early in the morning when they feed.
Elk are timid in the presence of humans and it is very difficult to see these magnificent animals in this Park.
Mule Deer
The forested area of Wind Cave includes scattered groves of ponderosa pine trees with a few hardwoods and one large forested area occupying the western and northwestern sections of the Park. Small mammals like the red squirrel, porcupine, and chipmunk are often seen in these areas along with larger mammals like the mule deer and the elk.
The mule deer, while closely related to the eastern species-the white-tailed deer, are remarkably distinct in their biological, ecological, and behavioral attributes. The mule deer evolved in the dry, rugged badlands and mountains of the west. They have a distinctly different gait from the leisurely, graceful leaps of the white-tail. When startled, a mule deer will move in a series of stiff-legged jumps with all four feet hitting the ground together. This gait offers two advantages: it allows the deer to out-distance predators in rough terrain, and to see above the thick brush. If necessary, they can turn or completely reverse direction in the course of a single bound.
Other characteristics that distinguish mule deer are the large size of their ears (for which they were named), their overall shape and large size, the form of the antlers and the tail. The mule deer carries its thin, black-tipped tail drooped, unlike the uplifted, bushy white tail of its cousin.
Antler growth begins in the spring. Antlers are a true bone, covered with "velvet," a soft, skin-like tissue that carries nourishment and calcium for the rapidly growing antlers. Full growth is attained in late summer with the tines forking into a series of Y's and rising above the head. After the antler growth is completed, the blood-supplying velvet is no longer needed and begins to fall or get rubbed off. This leaves the antlers shiny and hard. Late each winter the antlers fall off, and with spring, the growth cycle begins again.
Cast off antlers play a significant role in maintaining a natural balance in the Park. They provide an important source of calcium and other minerals to wildlife such as mice, porcupines, coyotes, bison, elk, and deer, all of which chew on the tips and softer portions throughout the year. Such a supplemental mineral source may be especially important during the birthing seasons of these mammals.
Mule deer breed in late November and early December. A buck will find a suitable doe and they will often play chase games at breakneck speeds before mating. They will remain together for several days.
Fawns are born in late May or early June. A doe will usually produce a single fawn the first year she gives birth and then produce twins in following years. They young are able to walk within a few minutes after being born. They have white camouflage spots and are further protected by having little or no scent. Does hide their fawns to keep them safe. The fawn's reddish brown coat with white spots blends well with the surrounding forest or prairie. This is called protective coloring and is the fawn's protective mechanism during the first weeks of its life. If you find a fawn do not touch or move it. Its mother has not forgotten it. By grazing away from the fawn she does not draw attention to the young and is helping to protect them. They will lie motionless until their mother returns and calls to them.Fawns usually stay with the doe for the first full year.
During the summer, the deer feed on tender branch and leaf tips of trees, shrubs, and some grasses. They are nocturnal feeders and are most often seen in the early morning and late evening.
Mule deer are found in the West from Canada to Mexico and in a variety of habitats from the high mountains to the plains and deserts. In the Park, they are most often sighted in the Headquarters area where good browse is available.
Pronghorn Antelope
Another interesting mammal that spends most of its time on the prairie is the pronghorn antelope. Pronghorns are true American natives, found nowhere else in the world. they have roamed the plains and deserts of North America for at least the last million years in substantially the same form. One can truly call this animal unique: he is the lone member of his family, Antilocapra americana, which literally means the "American goat-antelope."
The pronghorn has exceptionally keen vision complemented by excellent hearing and sense of smell.
Both sexes have horns, but the female's are only tiny spikes and are rarely pronged as are the twelve to eighteen-inch horns of the male. The horn is made up of two parts: a bony core covered by a black outer sheath. This sheath is made up of a stiff, hair-like substance. Pronghorns are the only animals in the world who shed their horns annually. The outer sheath of the horn falls off each fall and grows back by the following summer.
The coloration of the pronghorn varies from light tan to a rich brown with prominent white patches under the stomach and on the rump. In times of danger, the hairs of the rump can be held erect to produce, in the bright sunlight of the plains, a white flash visible for many miles. Along the neck there is a thick mane of dark brown to black hair. Pronghorn bucks have black patches on the lower jaw below the eye and a black mask extending back from the nose. These markings make it easier to distinguish the male from the female. No other animal is more strikingly beautiful than the pronghorn when he "poses" on the open plains.
The running gait of the pronghorn is beautifully smooth and their powerful legs can carry them at a remarkable pace across the roughest kind of terrain. As the fastest North American mammal, pronghorns can reach speeds of 60 miles per hour. At high speed they cover the ground in great strides of 14 to 24 feet, and are known to run for long distances at speeds of 30 to 40 miles per hour.
Fall signals the beginning of the intensive mating season. The territorial bucks are especially aggressive in defending their areas. Brief fights develop between males and occasionally one is seriously injured. Ambitious bucks may develop harems of 3 to 8 or more does.
The young are born in late May or early June with about 60% of the births being twins. At birth, fawns weigh 5 to 6 pounds and lack the spots that are characteristic of deer and elk fawns. The newborn do not have an odor and instinctively lie motionless for hours. This is their main defense from predators such as bobcats, eagles, and coyotes.
Prairie Dogs
Wind Cave National Park is really two parks in one. The surface is 28,000 acres of a complex mix of prairie grasses and ponderosa pine forest ecosystems. Seventy-five percent of the Park is open grassland, and living in that ecosystem is a large variety of mammals.
One of the more interesting sociable wild animals of the grasslands is the prairie dog, a rodent that belongs to the squirrel family. The name "prairie dog" came from their bark-like call, not from their appearance. They were called "petit chien" or little dog, by early French explorers and were scientifically described in the journals of Lewis and Clark.
The Park has only one species of prairie dog, the black-tailed prairie dog, named for the black tip of its tail. Black-tailed prairie dogs have small ears, short tails, and muscular legs. Their fur is buff-colored and often blends with the earth in which they dig their burrows.
Prairie dogs rely on keen hearing, excellent eyesight and a communal warning system for protection against predators. They are social animals and the areas they inhabit are known as towns or colonies. Town is a good term, because, in a way, their towns are much like ours. A dog town may vary in size from an acre to several hundred acres. In the 1800's, dog towns were described as stretching for miles; some extremely large towns are still found in South Dakota.
A typical prairie dog town consists of groups of prairie dogs that occupy and protect small areas within the town. These groups of prairie dogs are known as coteries, which may be compared to "neighborhoods" of human towns. Individual prairie dogs stay in their own neighborhoods. A typical coterie consists of one adult male, three or four adults females, and their young up to one year of age. The residents of each coterie protect their territory from intruders, including prairie dogs from other coteries within the town.
Members of the coterie cooperate with one another. Competition for food and shelter is uncommon within the coteries, and all members occupy a nearly equal social position. Members of the coterie recognize each other with a "kiss." They may also be seen grooming each other, cooperating in the construction of a burrow, aiding each other in defense of the territory, eating together, playing with one another, or standing side by side on a mound of earth.
Communication between the members of a town is very important and highly specialized. As many as ten different calls have been described, including sounds for warning, defense, territoriality, fear, or fighting. A warning cry from one prairie dog sends all within earshot hustling for their burrows.
Prairie dog burrows have not been studied intensively, but some general features are known. Depth of the burrow system is often governed by the local soils. In deep soil, the burrows may extend downward for ten or more feet, averaging 24 feet of tunnel per entrance. The prairie dogs pack a conical mound of soil around the entrance of the main burrow to serve as a lookout post and as protection against flooding. The entrance tunnel section extends steeply downward for several feet with the next tunnel section being gently inclined, descending down to the nest. The nest chamber is usually lined with grasses. Some tunnels then return to the surface, often with a depressed, crater-like opening marking their terminus. Several burrows may be connected underground. Tunnel plugs are common, but may be quickly re-excavated in emergencies.
Prairie dogs only give birth to one litter per year. The breeding season is mid-March to mid-April, with the young being born 4 to 5 weeks later. The size of the litter varies from 2 to 8 young, which are nursed by the mother for about 6 weeks. They come into the world blind, hairless, weighing ˝ an ounce. At 6 weeks of age the pups will make their first trip above ground. The pups stay close to their burrow to escape any nearby predators.
During May and the early part of June, the young begin to emerge from their burrows for the first time. At this time, yearlings (young from the previous year) and some adults may relocate, leaving the young pups to feel secure both socially and environmentally in the old burrow. When prairie dogs relocate, they take over abandoned holes or dig new holes at the edge of the town. A few may travel miles in search of new areas, but once away form the communal warning system, most are easy prey for predators.
Black-tailed prairie dogs have incomplete hibernation, their activity and appetite are decreased during the winter. They may sleep for many days at a time, but the town is usually active during the milder days of the winter.
Common predators of the prairie dog include coyotes, bobcats, eagles, hawks, badgers, and weasels. One member of the weasel family, the black-footed ferret, deserves special mention. They are perhaps the rarest mammals in North America, depending primarily upon prairie dogs for food. Widespread poisoning of prairie dog towns endangered the existence of this interesting mammal.
Other animals may also be found in prairie dog towns. Snakes, including rattlesnakes, are found of using abandoned burrows as homes, as are burrowing owls, birds with long legs and short tails. The owls can sometimes be seen standing on a mound in the midst of a prairie dog colony, creating little or no disturbance among the other inhabitants of the town.
| Family Name | Common Name | Scientific Name | Comments |
| Bats | Big Brown Bat | Eptesicus fuscus | Uncommon in park |
| Eastern Red Bat | Lasiurus borealis | No recorded observation in park, possible to occur | |
| Fringe-tailed Myotis | Myotis thysanodes | Uncommon in park | |
| Hoary Bat | Lasiurus cinereus | Uncommon in park | |
| Little Brown Myotis | Myotis lucifugus | Common in the park | |
| Long-eared Myotis | Myotis evotis | Rare in park | |
| Long-legged Myotis | Myotis volans | Uncommon in park | |
| Northern Myotis | Myotis septentrionalis | No recorded observation in park, possible to occur | |
| Silver-haired Bat | Lasionycteris noctivarans | Uncommon in park | |
| Townsend's Big-eared Bat | Corynorhinus townsendi | Uncommon in park | |
| Western Small-footed Myotis | Myotis ciliolabrum | Rare in park | |
| Carnivores | American Badger | Taxidae taxus | Occasionally seen in prairie dog towns |
| American Marten | Martes americana | No recorded observation; do not occur in park | |
| Black Bear | Ursus americanus | Extirpated from park | |
| Black-footed Ferret | Mustela nigripes | Extirpated from park, last observed 1968 | |
| Bobcat | Felis rufus | Uncommon in park; rarely observed | |
| Common Gray Fox | Urocyon cinereoargenteus | No recorded observation; unlikely to occur | |
| Common Raccoon | Procyon lotor | Occasionally seen in the park | |
| Coyote | Canis latrans | Common in park | |
| Eastern Spotted Skunk | Spilogale putorius | Rare in park; last observed in 1951 | |
| Ermine | Mustela erminea | Occasionally seen in park | |
| Grey Wolf | Canis lupus | Extirpated from park; 1934 last in Black Hills | |
| Grizzly Bear | Ursus horribilis | Extirpated from park, 1894 last in Black Hills | |
| Least Weasel | Mutela nivalis | No recorded observation; possible to occur | |
| Longtail Weasel | Mustela frenata | Rare in park | |
| Mink | Mustela vison | No recorded observation; possible to occur | |
| Mountain Lion | Felis concolor | Occasionally seen in park | |
| Red Fox | Vulpes vulpes | No recorded observation; possible to occur | |
| Striped Skunk | Mephitis mephitis | Occasionally seen in park | |
| Swift Fox | Vulpes velox | No recorded observation; unlikely to occur | |
| Even-toed Hoofed Mammals |
Bison ("Buffalo") | Bison bison | Common in park, reintroduced in 1913 |
| Elk | Cervus elephus | Abundant, difficult to observe, reintroduced in 1914 | |
| Mule Deer | Odocoileus hemionus | Common in park, often observed | |
| Pronghorn ("Antelope") | Antilocapra americana | Uncommon in park, reintroduced in 1914 | |
| Whitetail Deer | Odocoileus virginianus | Common in park, often observed | |
| Hares & Rabbits | Black-Tailed Jackrabbit | Lepus californicus | No recorded observation; possible to occur |
| Desert Cottontail | Sylvilagus auduboni | Common in arid grasslands and prairie dog towns | |
| Eastern Cottontail | Sylvilagus floridanus | Common in woodlands near visitor center | |
| Mountain Cottontail | Sylvilagus nuttalli | No recorded observation, possible above 4,500 feet | |
| Whitetail Jackrabbit | Lepus townsendi | Rare in park grasslands | |
| Insectivores | Dwarf Shrew | Sorex nanus | No recorded observation; likely to occur |
| Hayden's Shrew | Sorex haydeni | Common in park riparian areas | |
| Least Shrew | Cryptotis parva | Rare in park grasslands | |
| Marriam Shrew | Sorex merriami | No recorded observation; possible to occur | |
| Rodents | American Beaver | Castor canadensis | No recorded observation; possible to occur |
| Blacktail Prairie Dog | Cynomys ludovicianus | Abundant in park | |
| Bushytail Woodrat | Neotoma cinerea | Common in park rocky areas, near cave entrance | |
| Deer Mouse | Peromyscus maniculatus | Abundant throughout the park | |
| Eastern Fox Squirrel | Scoiris moger | No recorded observation; possible to occur | |
| Hispid Pocket Mouse | Chaetodipus hispidus | Rare in park; arid and rocky habitats | |
| House Mouse | Mus musculus | Rare in park; exotic last observed in 1968 | |
| Least Chipmunk | Tamias minimus | Common in rocky outcrops and near dead snags | |
| Long-Tailed Vole | Microtus longicaudus | No recorded observation; possible to occur | |
| Meadow Jumping Mouse | Zapus hudsonius | Uncommon in moist draws and riparian areas | |
| Meadow Vole | Microtus pennsylvanicus | Common along riparian areas | |
| Muskrat | Ondartra zibethica | Rare in park due to unsuitable habitat | |
| Northern Flying Squirrel | Glaucomys sabrinus | Rarely seen in the park; rarely observed | |
| Northern Grasshopper Mouse | Onychomys leucogaster | No recorded observation; likely to occur | |
| Northern Pocket Golpher | Thomomys talpoides | Common in park grasslands | |
| Norway Rat | Rattus norvegicus | No observations; exotic possible to occur | |
| Olive-backed PocketMouse | Perognathus fasciatus | Rare in park grasslands | |
| Ord's Kangaroo Rat | Dipodomys ordi | No recorded observation; possible to occur | |
| Plains Harvest Mouse | Reithrodontomys montanus | No recorded observation; possible to occur | |
| Porcupine | Erethizon dorsatum | Common, frequently seen at night | |
| Prairie Vole | Microtus ochrogaster | Common in grasslands; cyclic population | |
| Red Squirrel | Tamiasciurus hudsonicus | Common in park woodlands | |
| Southern Red-Backed Vole | Clethrionomys gapperi | Common in aspen and moist pine habitat | |
| Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel | Spermophilus tridencemlineatuss | Frequently seen near prairie dog towns | |
| Western Harvest Mouse | Reithrodontomys megalotis | Uncommon in park grasslands | |
| White-footed Mouse | Peromyscus leucopus | Abundant in moist draws and riparian areas | |
| Yellowbelly Marmot | Marmota flaviventrus | Occasional sightings in rocky areas |
Prairie Rattlesnake
The prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis) is an important predator of prairie dogs and other small rodents. This snake may actually live in prairie dog towns residing in the old burrows of their former prey.
The rattlesnake is not aggressive but like most animals it will defend itself when it feels threatened. The venom of the rattlesnake is a hemotoxin (blood poison). The snake can regulate the amount of venom it injects conserving what it does not need for later use. About one-third of the North American venomous snake bites received by humans are "dry" or venom free.
| Word | Meaning |
| Common | likely to see in proper habitat |
| Uncommon | possible to see in proper habitat |
| Rare | unlikely to see even in proper habitat |
| Family Name | Common Name | Abundance | Residence |
| Blackbirds, Meadowlarks, Orioles | Baltimore Oriole | Rare | Summer |
| Bobolink | Rare | Summer | |
| Brewer's Blackbird | Common | Summer | |
| Brown-headed Cowbird | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Bullock's Oriole | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Common Grackle | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Orchard Oriole | Rare | Summer | |
| Red-winged Blackbird | Common | Summer | |
| Western Meadowlark | Common | Summer | |
| Yellow-headed Blackbird | Rare | Summer | |
| Bluebirds, Thrushes | American Robin | Common | Permanent |
| Eastern Bluebird | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Mountain Bluebird | Common | Summer | |
| Swainson's Thrush | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Townsend's Solitaire | Common | Permanent | |
| Veery | Rare | Migrant | |
| Chickadees, Nuthatches, Creepers | Black-capped Chickadee | Common | Permanent |
| Brown Creeper | Rare | Permanent | |
| Pygmy Nuthatch | Rare | Permanent | |
| Red-breasted Nuthatch | Common | Permanent | |
| White-breasted Nuthatch | Common | Permanent | |
| Doves, Cuckoos | Black-billed Cuckoo | Rare | Summer |
| Mourning Dove | Common | Summer | |
| Rock Dove | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Finches, Crossbills | American Goldfinch | Common | Summer |
| Cassin's Finch | Rare | Permanent | |
| Common Redpoll | Rare | Winter | |
| Evening Grosbeak | Rare | Permanent | |
| Gray-crowned Rosy Finch | Rare | Winter | |
| House Finch | Rare | Permanent | |
| Pine Siskin | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Purple Finch | Rare | Winter | |
| Red Crossbill | Common | Permanent | |
| Flycatchers, Larks | Cordilleran Flycatcher | Uncommon | Summer |
| Dusky Flycatcher | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Eastern Kingbird | Common | Summer | |
| Eastern Phoebe | Rare | Summer | |
| Great Crested Flycatcher | Rare | Migrant | |
| Least Flycatcher | Rare | Summer | |
| Olive-sided Flycatcher | Rare | Migrant, Summer | |
| Say's Phoebe | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Western Kingbird | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Western Wood Peewee | Common | Summer | |
| Willow Flycatcher | Rare | Migrant | |
| Fowl-like Birds | Ring neck Pheasant | Rare | Permanent |
| Sharp-tailed Grouse | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Wild Turkey | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Geese, Ducks | American Wigeon | Rare | Migrant |
| Blue-winged Teal | Common | Migrant | |
| Bufflehead | Rare | Migrant | |
| Canada Goose | Rare | Migrant | |
| Canvasback | Rare | Migrant | |
| Gadwall | Rare | Migrant | |
| Green-winged Teal | Uncommon | Migrant | |
| Lesser Scaup | Rare | Migrant | |
| Mallard | Common, Uncommon | Migrant, Summer | |
| Northern Pintail | Rare | Migrant | |
| Northern Shoveler | Uncommon | Migrant | |
| Redhead | Rare | Migrant | |
| Ring-necked Duck | Rare | Migrant | |
| Snow Goose | Rare | Migrant | |
| Wood Duck | Rare | Migrant | |
| Goatsuckers, Swifts | Common Nighthawk | Common | Summer |
| Common Poorwill | Uncommon | Summer | |
| White-throated Swift | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Grebes, Pelicans, Cormorants | American White Pelican | Rare | Migrant |
| Double-crested Cormorant | Rare | Migrant | |
| Eared Grebe | Rare | Migrant | |
| Pied-billed Grebe | Rare | Migrant | |
| Western Grebe | Rare | Migrant | |
| Grosbeaks, Dickcissels, Towhees | Black-headed Grosbeak | Uncommon | Summer |
| Blue Grosbeak | Rare | Migrant | |
| Dickcissel | Rare | Summer | |
| Indigo Bunting | Rare | Summer | |
| Lazuli Bunting | Rare | Summer | |
| Rose-breasted Grosbeak | Rare | Migrant | |
| Herons, Bitterns | American Bittern | Rare | Migrant |
| Great Blue Heron | Rare | Migrant, Summer | |
| Hummingbirds | Broad-tailed Hummingbird | Rare | Migrant |
| Calliope Hummingbird | Rare | Migrant | |
| Ruby-throated Hummingbird | Rare | Migrant | |
| Rufous Hummingbird | Rare | Migrant | |
| Jays, Magpies, Crows | American Crow | Common | Permanent |
| Black-billed Magpie | Common | Permanent | |
| Blue Jay | Rare | Permanent | |
| Clark's Nutcracker | Common | Permanent | |
| Gray Jay | Rare | Permanent | |
| Pinyon Jay | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Kingfishers | Belted Kingfisher | Rare | Summer |
| Larks, Swallows | Bank swallow | Rare | Summer |
| Barn Swallow | Common | Summer | |
| Cliff Swallow | Common | Summer | |
| Horned Lark | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Northern Rough-winged Swallow | Rare | Summer | |
| Tree Swallow | Rare | Summer | |
| Violet-green Swallow | Common | Summer | |
| Mimics, Thrashers, Pipits | American Pipit | Rare | Migrant |
| Brown Thrasher | Uncommon | Summer | |
| European Starling | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Gray Catbird | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Northern Mockingbird | Rare | Migrant | |
| Sage Thrasher | Rare | Migrant, Summer | |
| Owls | Burrowing Owl | Uncommon | Summer |
| Eastern Screech Owl | Rare | Permanent | |
| Great Horned Owl | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Long-eared Owl | rare | Permanent | |
| Northern Saw-whet Owl | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Short-eared Owl | Rare | Permanent | |
| Rails, Coots, Cranes | American Coot | Rare | Migrant |
| Sandhill Crane | Rare | Migrant | |
| Sora | Rare | Migrant, Summer | |
| Shrikes | Loggerhead Shrike | Uncommon | Summer |
| Northern Shrike | Uncommon | Winter | |
| Shorebirds, Gulls, Terns | American Avocet | Rare | Migrant |
| Black Tern | Rare | Migrant | |
| Common Snipe | Rare | Migrant | |
| Greater Yellowlegs | Rare | Migrant | |
| Killdeer | Common | Summer | |
| Lesser Yellowlegs | Rare | Migrant | |
| Long-billed Curlew | Rare | Migrant | |
| Ring-billed Gull | Rare | Migrant | |
| Spotted Sandpiper | Uncommon, Rare | Migrant, Summer | |
| Solitary Sandpiper | Rare | Migrant | |
| Upland Sandpiper | Common | Summer | |
| Willet | Rare | Migrant | |
| Wilson's Phalarope | Rare | Migrant | |
| Sparrows, Juncos, Longspurs | American Tree Sparrow | Uncommon | Winter |
| Baird's Sparrow | Rare | Migrant | |
| Chestnut-collared Longspur | Rare | Migrant, Summer | |
| Chipping Sparrow | Common | Summer | |
| Clay-colored Sparrow | Uncommon | Migrant | |
| Dark-eyed Junco | Common | Permanent | |
| Field Sparrow | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Fox Sparrow | Rare | Migrant | |
| Grasshopper Sparrow | Common | Summer | |
| Lapland Longspur | Rare | Migrant, Winter | |
| Lark Bunting | Rare | Summer | |
| Lark Sparrow | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Lincoln's Sparrow | Rare | Migrant | |
| McCown's Longspur | Rare | Migrant | |
| Savannah Sparrow | Rare | Migrant | |
| Snow Bunting | Rare | Winter | |
| Song Sparrow | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Vesper Sparrow | Common | Summer | |
| White-crowned Sparrow | Uncommon | Migrant | |
| White-throated Sparrow | Rare | Migrant | |
| Tanagers, Towhees | Spotted Towhee | Common | Summer |
| Western Tanager | Common | Summer | |
| Vireos | Plumbeous Vireo | Common | Summer |
| Red-eyed Vireo | Rare | Summer | |
| Warbling Vireo | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Vultures, Birds of Prey | American Kestrel | Common | Summer |
| Bald Eagle | Rare | Migrant, Winter | |
| Cooper's Hawk | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Ferruginous Hawk | Rare | Summer | |
| Golden Eagle | Common | Permanent | |
| Merlin | Uncommon, Rare | Migrant, Summer | |
| Northern Goshawk | Rare | Permanent | |
| Northern Harrier | Uncommon | Migrant | |
| Osprey | Rare | Migrant | |
| Peregrine Falcon | Rare | Migrant | |
| Prairie Falcon | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Red-tailed Hawk | Common | Summer | |
| Rough-legged Hawk | Rare | Migrant, Winter | |
| Sharp-shinned Hawk | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Swainson's Hawk | Rare | Migrant | |
| Turkey Vulture | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Warblers | American Redstart | Uncommon | Summer |
| Blackpoll Warbler | Rare | Migrant | |
| Black-and-white Warbler | Rare | Migrant | |
| Black-throated Blue Warbler | Rare | Migrant | |
| Chestnut-sided Warbler | Rare | Migrant | |
| Common Yellowthroat | Common | Summer | |
| MacGillivrary's Warbler | Rare | Summer | |
| Northern Waterthrush | Uncommon | Migrant | |
| Orange-crowned Warbler | Uncommon | Migrant | |
| Ovenbird | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Palm Warbler | Rare | Migrant | |
| Tennessee Warbler | Rare | Migrant | |
| Yellow Warbler | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Yellow-breasted Chat | Common | Summer | |
| Yellow-rumped Warbler | Common | Migrant, Summer | |
| Wilson's Warbler | Uncommon | Migrant | |
| Waxwings | Bohemian Waxwing | Rare | Migrant, Winter |
| Cedar Waxwing | Uncommon | Permanent | |
| Wrens, Kinglets | Canyon Wren | Uncommon | Summer |
| Golden-crowned Kinglet | Rare | Permanent | |
| House Wren | Common | Summer | |
| Rock Wren | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Ruby-crowned Kinglet | Uncommon | Migrant, Summer | |
| Winter Wren | Rare | Winter | |
| Woodpeckers | Black-backed Woodpecker | Rare | Permanent |
| Downy Woodpecker | Common | Permanent | |
| Hairy Woodpecker | Common | Permanent | |
| Lewis' Woodpecker | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Northern Flicker | Common | Summer | |
| Red-headed Woodpecker | Uncommon | Summer | |
| Red-naped Sapsucker | Rare | Summer | |
| Three-toed Woodpecker | Rare | Winter |
| Family Name | Common Name | Scientific Name | Comments |
| Lizards | Lizards may occur in the park since their known geographic ranges include this area. However, there have been no recorded observations. | ||
| Salamanders | Blotched Tiger Salamander | Ambystoma tigrinum | Common, large, black with light yellow areas |
| Snakes | Black Hills Red-bellied Snake | Storeria occipitomaculata | Rare, small secretive snake, found in wooded areas |
| Bullsnake | Pituophis melanoleucus | Abundant, large yellowish snake with dorsal blotches | |
| Eastern Yellow-bellied Racer | Coluber constrictor | Common, olive green; active through the day | |
| Pale Milk Snake | Lampropeltis triangulum | Rare, black, orange, and gray snake with light snout | |
| Plains Western Hognose Snake | Heterodon nasicus | Rare, sharply upturned snout; prefers dry sandy areas | |
| Prairie Rattlesnake | Crotalus viridis | Abundant, venomous; frequently found in rocky areas, ledges and prairie dog towns | |
| Red-Sided Garter Snake | Thamnophis sirtalis | Fairly common, red or orange bars on side; often found near water | |
| Smooth Green Snake | Opheodrys vernalis | Rare, gentle, bright green snake, largely terrestrial | |
| Wandering Garter Snake | Thamnophis elegans | Abundant, found near water, may wander into dry areas | |
| Western Plains Garter Snake | Thamnophis radix | Rare, found near prairie ponds | |
| Toads/Frogs | Great Plains Toad | Bufo cognatus | Common, large dark blotches containing many warts |
| Northern Leopard Frog | Rana pipiens | Not found, but suitable habitat and range Green with two or three rows of dark spots | |
| Plains Spadefoot Toad | Scaphiopus bombifrons | Prefers open grasslands, avoids wooded areas | |
| Upland Chorus Frog | Psuedacris triseriata | Abundant, small with three dark stripes down back | |
| Woodhouse's Toad | Bufo woodhousei | Common, large toad, yellowish brown or gray | |
| Turtles | Common Snapping Turtle | Chelydra serpentina | Common, found along streams in park |
| Western Painted Turtle | Chrysemys picta | Common in suitable habitat, Smooth shell; shallow water, soft muddy bottoms |
Grasses of the Mixed Grass Prairie
Within Wind Cave National Park you can find an excellent example of a mixed grass prairie. A mixed grass prairie is an ecotone characterized by a mixture of the tall grass species of the eastern tall grass prairie and the short grass species of the western high plains. It is a meeting place, an area that is constantly changing. The dominance of the different types of grasses depends on the amount of moisture received in any given year. With abundant rainfall the tall grasses will dominate because they need more moisture. They are generally found in the valleys of the park. The short grasses are adapted to less moisture. These grasses are found on the dryer, south facing slopes of the park.
Of all of the flowering plants of the prairie, grasses are often overlooked. They are the main component of the prairie, making up about 80% of the biomass. Forbs constitute the other 20%.
Vanishing Prairie
The first settlers traveling west across the prairie may not have noticed the gently rolling hills and purple-red vistas. Theirs was a difficult journey of incredible monotony over trackless grassland. Even today, the prairie landscape inspires little more than a casual glance out the car window. Perhaps, though, it is worth knowing that of the four major types of natural vegetation communities, the grasslands represent the largest, of 24% of the earth's vegetation. Grasslands or prairies once covered one third of the continent. Wind Cave National Park offers the opportunity to explore a remnant of this once vast ecosystem.
The conditions that led to the present grassland are relatively recent. During the middle Miocene (about 15 million years ago) through the Holocene (about 8,000 years ago) the climate changed, causing a gradual shift in vegetation from semi-open woodlands to open grassland. As the amount of water evaporated exceeded the amount of water precipitated, these grasses, which are better adapted to arid climates, out-competed the trees and shrubs of the forest.
Mixed Grass Prairie
Wind Cave National Park is located where the grasslands meet the ponderosa pine forests of the uplifted Black Hills. Here, there is blending of the tall grass prairie species of the eastern Great Plains and the short grass species of the western Great Plains. These eastern and western prairies are differentiated by the types of forbs (herbaceous plants) and grasses found there. Each type reflects the amount of available moisture which decreases from east to west. The species composition is determined by the climate, fire frequency, and the degree and frequency of grazing. The mixed grass prairie is an ecotone that results were species composition is constantly shifting between the tall and short grass prairies.
The Prairie Plants
A plant community is the result of biotic factors (vegetation genetics, grazing), abiotic factors (climate, mineral soil, moisture) and their interactions. Since abiotic factors vary in even small areas, habitat gradients are produced. Because of this, many unique plant communities result such as big bluestem grass growing in depressions and needle-an-thread grass growing on eroded hillsides.
There are approximately 140 million acres of mixed grass prairie in North America. Although grasses provide the most material (80 to 90% biomass), only 20% of the plant species are grasses. The rest are forbs which add to the diversity of forage, important for browsing animals like the pronghorn.
Plant Adaptation
Grasses are able to maximize their growth and production even with constantly changing environments. They send more than half of their tissue or their roots, below the ground. This helps build and hold soil and creates a food store that the plants use during dominate periods such as winter or during droughts. Grasses have also adapted to pressure from grazing. Silica is assimilated by the plant into its cell walls. This makes the leaves coarse and less palatable. Also, the growing parts are at the base of the plant, so cropping off the top will not kill the plant. When the photosynthesizing tissue is removed by grazing, the rate of photosynthesis within the uneaten tissue is increased.
Growing Seasons
In response to wide temperature fluctuations, grasses have evolved to cool- and warm-season species. Cool-season grasses, such as needle-and-thread grass, grow well in the spring and fall when the temperatures are cooler and more water is available. Warm-season grasses, such as blue grama, await the summer months. They grow best in high temperatures.
Surviving the Winter
By winter the aerial portions of grasses have died and most of the plants' energy has been transferred to the root system. What remains is known as standing dead, the dry carpet of grass that crunches underfoot. This dead material is an important source of food for the grazing animals throughout the winter. It also provides fuel for periodic fires.
Prairie Fires
Fires burn the built up layers of dead material from previous years. It is fire that has helped shape the grassland community by killing competing trees and shrubs, effectively maintaining the balance between the forest and prairie. During a fire, most of the grass remains unharmed in the ground. After the fire, grasses benefit as more space, light and water become available for more growth.
The Future of the Prairie
The prairie is home to a variety of plants and animals. It is a place where deer, coyotes, pronghorn, prairie dogs, eagle, hawks and other wildlife flourish. The prairie is not only valued for its biodiversity, but for the wide-open space and magnificent beauty found there. With the westward advance and agricultural development of the grasslands it has become difficult to understand the prairie ecosystem. Continued management is needed to maintain and understand it. Wind Cave National Park and other protected areas offer us a glimpse of this vanishing community and an opportunity to understand it better.
Grasses of the Mixed Prairies (charts)
| Name | Characteristics |
| Annual | A plant that does not live more than 1 year. |
| Perennial | A plant that can live for more than 2 years. |
| Warm Season | A plant that grows in spring and summer, flowers in summer or fall. |
| Cool Season | A plant that grows and flowers in spring and early summer, grows slowly or becomes dormant during the hot part of the summer, and may resume growth in the fall as the weather cools. |
| Sod Grass | A grass that forms sod by means of rhizomes or stolons. |
| Bunch Grass | A grass that takes on the characteristic shape of a bunch or tuft. |
| Native | Grass that was part of the original vegetation of the area. |
| Introduced | Grass not native to North America, intentionally or unintentionally brought in by humans. |
| Common Name | Scientific Name | Characteristics |
| Intermediate wheatgrass (Jun-Aug) | Agropyron intermedium | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Introduced |
| Spikebent (Jul-Aug) | Agrostis exarata | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Redtop (Jun-Jul) | Agrostis stolonifera | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Native |
| Big bluestem (Jul-Aug) | Andropogon gerardii | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Prairie sandreed (Aug-Sep) | Calamovilfa longifolia | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Orchard grass (May-Oct) | Dactylis glomerata | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Introduced |
| Canada wild rye (Jul-Aug) | Elymus canadensis | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Switchgrass (Jul-Sep) | Panicum virgatum | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Reed canarygrass (May-Jul) | Phalaris arundinacea | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Native |
| Indiangrass (Aug-Sep) | Sorghastrum nutans | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Prairie cordgrass (Jul-Aug) | Spartina pectinata | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Prairie dropseed (Jul-Sep) | Sporobolus asper | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Native |
| Sand dropseed (Aug-Sep) | Sporobolus cryptandrus | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Native |
| Common Name | Scientific Name | Characteristics |
| Slender wheatgrass (Jul-Aug) | Agropyron caninum | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Crested wheatgrass (Jun-Jul) | Agropyron cristatum | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Introduced |
| Western wheatgrass (Jun-Jul) | Agropyron smithii | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Native |
| Bluebunch wheatgrass (Jun-Jul) | Agropyron spicatum | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Little bluestem (Aug-Sep) | Schizachyrium scoparius | Perennial, Warm Season, Bunch, Native |
| Side-oats grama (Jul-Aug) | Bouteloua curtipendula | Perennial, Warm Season, Bunch, Native |
| Hairy chess (May-Jun) | Bromus commutatus | Annual, Cool Season, Sod, Introduced |
| Smooth brome (May-Jun) | Bromus inermis | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Introduced |
| Poverty Grass (Jul-Aug) | Danthonia spicata | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Native |
| Barnyard grass (Jul-Sep) | Echinochloa crusgalli | Annual, Warm Season, Sod, Introduced |
| Foxtail barley (Jun-Jul) | Hordeum jubatum | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Junegrass (Jun-Jul) | Koeleria pyramidata | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Marsh muhly (Aug-Sep) | Muhlenbergia racemosa | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Rough-leaved ricegrass (May-Jun) | Oryzopsis aspenifolia | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Indian ricegrass (Jun-Jul) | Oryzopsis hymenoides | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Timothy (Jun-Jul) | Phleum pratense | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Introduced |
| Canada bluegrass (Jun-Jul) | Poa compressa | Perennial, Cool Season, Sod, Introduced |
| Canby's bluegrass (Jun-Jul) | Poa canbyi | Perennial, Warm Season, Bunch, Native |
| Inland bluegrass (Jun-Jul) | Poa interior | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Kentucky bluegrass (Jun-Jul) | Poa pratensis | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Squirreltail (Jun-Jul) | Sitanion hystrix | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Needle-and-thread (May-Jul) | Stipa comata | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Porcupine grass (May-Jun) | Stipa spartea | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Green needlegrass (Jul-Aug) | Stipa viridula | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Common Name | Scientific Name | Characteristics |
| Red threeawn (Aug-Sep) | Aristida longiseta | Perennial, Warm Season, Bunch, Native |
| Blue grama (Jul-Aug) | Bouteloua gracilis | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Hairy grama (Jul-Aug) | Bouteloua hirsuta | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Japanese brome (Jun-Aug) | Bromus japonicus | Annual, Cold Season, Bunch, Introduced |
| Cheatgrass (May-Jun) | Bromus tectorum | Annual, Cold Season, Sod, Introduced |
| Buffalo grass (Jun-Jul) | Buchloe dactyloides | Perennial, Warm Season, Sod, Native |
| Stinkgrass (Jul-Aug) | Eragrostis cilianensis | Annual, Warm Season, Introduced |
| Sixweeks fescue (May-Jun) | Festuca octoflora | Annual, Cool Season, Native |
| Little barley (May-Jun) | Hordeum pusillum | Annual, Cool Season, Native |
| Plains muhly (Jul-Aug) | Muhlenbergia cuspidata | Perennial, Warm Season, Native |
| Plains bluegrass (Apr-Jun) | Poa arida | Perennial, Cool Season, Bunch, Native |
| Sandberg's bluegrass (Apr-Jun) | Poa sandbergii | Perennial, Warm Season, Bunch, Native |
Ponderosa Pine
The ponderosa pine is the most widely distributed species of its genus in North America. It s generally found in a subhumid area deficient in summer rainfall. The tree reproduces through seeds produced in cones, which require 2 years to mature.
The Black Hills forest is dominated by the ponderosa pine tree. Where conditions permit, other trees such as the birch, white spruce, quaking aspen, and elm also grow.
Wind Cave National Park can be divided into two major vegetation types: the ponderosa pine forest and the mixed grass prairie. Twenty-five percent of the park is tree covered. The forested area includes ponderosa pine forests and scattered groves of elm, aspen, bur oak, boxelder, and birch. These scattered groves are generally found along drainage areas. The ponderosa pine forest occupies the higher elevations in the park.
The ponderosa is an extravagant user of readily available moisture. It sends down a fast growing taproot which enables it to obtain moisture from many levels. As a seedling it also possesses the ability to withstand prolonged drought. The trees are capable of growing exceptionally fast if conditions are good for them. Because of the taproot, the trees can generally withstand high winds. When "wind throw" does occur it is often because the tree has root rot or the root systems are shallow because of the rock on which the tree is growing.
Ponderosa pines are considered fire resistant, damaged only when the fire "crowns" and sixty percent or more of the tree is destroyed. Some observers feel that a natural thinning process has largely disappeared because of organized fire protection. As a result even-aged, stagnating stands of the species have developed.
Ponderosa pines are prolific and pine seedlings grow in the shade of mature trees. If not kept in check, young trees will form exceptionally thick stands. Because of the intense competition for nutrients, moisture and sunlight, very few trees develop fully. This creates a stagnate situation for all the trees and even the grasses and forbes in the area.
Fires kept the forest in check and opened the land to grasses and other vegetation. Fires burned young seedlings so that only a few healthy ones survived to replace large trees that were dying. In this way the trees of the forest were in different stages of development and the forest was healthier.
In a healthy forest, insects, such as the mountain pine beetle, have less a chance to destroy trees. The pine beetle attacks trees that are about 9 inches in diameter and are close together. In a mature, fire controlled forest, this situation rarely developed.
After a century of use and misuse the ponderosa pine forest of the Black Hills has developed into a vast area of even-aged trees. These trees are susceptible to insect infestation and destruction by fire. Also, because they are so prolific, the trees are encroaching upon the prairie and using so much of the land's moisture and nutrients that other plants can not thrive.
Plants of Wind Caves National Park
A plant community is the result of biotic factors (vegetation genetics, grazing), abiotic factors (climate, mineral soil, moisture) and their interactions. Since abiotic factors vary in even small areas, habitat gradients are produced. Because of this, many unique plant communities result such as big bluestem grass growing in depressions and needle-an-thread grass growing on eroded hillsides.
There are approximately 140 million acres of mixed grass prairie in North America. Although grasses provide the most material (80 to 90% biomass), only 20% of the plant species are grasses. The rest are forbs which add to the diversity of forage, important for browsing animals like the pronghorn.
| Common Name | Scientific Name |
| Missouri pincusion | Coryphantha missouriensis (Sweet) Britt & Rose |
| Nylon hedgehog cactus | Echinocereus viridiflorus Engelm. |
| Pinchshion cactus | Coryphantha vivipara (Nutt.) Britt. & Rose |
| Plains prickly pear | Opuntia polyacantha Haw. |
| Pricklypear | Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. |
| Family Name | Common Name | Scientific Name |
| Anacardiaceae | Skunkbrush | Rhus aromaticaAit |
| Smooth sumac | Rhus glabraL | |
| Asteraceae | Rubber rabbitbrush | Chrysothamnus nauseosu(Pall) Britt. |
| Betulaceae | Mountain birch | Betula occidentalisHook |
| Caprifoliaceae | White coralberry | Symphoricorpos albus(L.) Blake |
| Western snowberry | Symphoricarpos occidentalis(Hook.) | |
| Cornaceae | Redosier dogwood | Cornus stoloniferaMichx. |
| Cupressaceae | Common juniper | Juniperus communisL |
| Creeping juniper | Juniperus horizontalisMoench | |
| Fabaceae | Leadplant | Amorpha canescensPursh |
| False indigo | Amorpha fruiticosaL | |
| Grossulariaceae | Golden currant | Ribes odoratumWendl |
| Rosaceae | Saskatoon serviceberry | Amelanchier alnifoliaNutt |
| Northern hawthorn | Crateagus rotundifoliaMoench | |
| Chock cherry | Prunus virginianaL | |
| Wild plum | Prunus americanaMarsh | |
| True mountain mahogany | Cercocarpus montanusRaf | |
| Caprifoliaceae | Nannyberry | Viburnum lentagoL |
| Eleaeagnaceae | Silver buffaloberry | Shepherdia argentea(Pursh) Nutt |
| Salicaceae | Willow | Salixspp |
| Family Name | Common Name | Scientific Name | Bloom |
| Agave | Small soapweed | Yucca glauca | May-Jun |
| Bean | American vetch | Vicia americana | May-Jun |
| Black medick | Alfalfa Medicago lupulina | Apr-Nov | |
| Leadplant | Amorpha canescens | May-Aug | |
| Locoweed | Oxytropis campestris, O. lambertii | May-Aug | |
| Lupine, Bluebonnet | Lupinus argenteus | Jun-Aug | |
| Milkvetch | Astragolus bisculcatus, A. crassicarpus, A. missouriensis | Mar-Aug | |
| Prairie clover | Dalea aurea, D. candida, D. purpurea | May-Sep | |
| Prairie goldenpea | Thermopsis rhombifolia | Apr-Jun | |
| Scurfpea | Psoralea argophylla, P. esculenta | May-Sep | |
| Sweetclover | Metilotus alba, M. officinalis | May-Oct | |
| Wild licorice | Glycyrrhiza lepidota | May-Aug | |
| Bellflower | Venus' looking glass | Triodanis leptocarpa | May-Jun |
| Borage | False gromwell | Onosmodium molle | Jun-Jul |
| Gromwell | Lithospermum incisum | Apr-Jun | |
| Hound's tongue | Cynoglossum officinale | May-Jul | |
| Broomrape | Clustered broomrape | Orobanche fasciculata | Jun-Jul |
| Buckwheat | Buckwheat | Eriogonum annuum, E. flavum, E. pauciflorum | May-Sep |
| Buttercup | Crowfoot, Buttercup | Ranunculus glaberrimus | Apr-Jun |
| Pasqueflower | Anemone patens | Apr-Jun | |
| Cactus | Plains Pickly Pear | Opuntia polycantha | May-Jun |
| Caper | Clammyweed | Polanisia dodecandra | May-Oct |
| Rocky Mountain beeplant | Cleome serrulata | Jun-Aug | |
| Cashew | Poison ivy | Toxicodendron rydbergii | May-Sep |
| Skunkbush | Rhus aromatica | Apr-May | |
| Dogbane | Indian hemp dogbane | Apocynum cannabinum | May-Sep |
| Evening Primrose | Pale evening primrose | Oenothera albicaulis | Apr-Aug |
| Velvety gaura | Gaura parviflora | May-Oct | |
| Yellow primrose | Calylophus serulatus | May-Sep | |
| Figwort | Beardtongue | Penstemon albidus, P. gracilis, P. grandifloras | Apr-Aug |
| Blue-eyed Mary | Collinsia parviflora | Apr-Jun | |
| Butter-and-eggs | Linaria vulgaris | Jun-Aug | |
| Wooly mullein | Verbascum thapsis | Jun-Jul | |
| Goosefoot | Goosefoot | Chenopodium album, C. gigantospermum, C. berlandieri | Apr-Sep |
| Poverty weed | Monolepsis nuttalliana | Apr-Sep | |
| Grape | Virginia creeper | Rarthenocissus quinquefolia | May-Jul |
| Honeysuckle | Western snowberry | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Jun-Aug |
| White coralberry | Symphoricarpos albus | Jun-Jul | |
| Lily | Wild onion | Allium cernuum, A. geyeri, A. textile | May-Jul |
| Mallow | Red false mallow | Sphaeralcea | Apr-Aug |
| Nightshade | Buffalo bur | Solanum rostratum | May-Oct |
| Groundcherry | Physalis longifolia, P. virginiana | May-Sep | |
| Parsley | Cymopterus | Cymopterus montanus | Mar-May |
| Narrow-leaved musineon | Musineon tenuifolium | May-Sep | |
| Polemonium | Collomia linearis | Collomia linearis | Apr-Aug |
| Phlox | Phlox aoyssifolia, P. hoodii | Apr-Aug | |
| Pigweed | Pigweed | Amaranthus graecizans, A. retroflexus | Jul-Oct |
| Pink | Mouse-ears | Cerastium vulgatum | Apr-Oct |
| Plantain | Wooly plantain | Plantago patagonica | May-Aug |
| Poppy | Prickly poppy | Argemone polyanthemos | May-Sep |
| Primrose | Rock jasmine | Androsace occidentalis | Mar-Jun |
| Rose | Chokecherry | Prunus virginiana | Apr-May |
| Cinquefoil | Potentilla hippiana, P. pensylvanica | Jun-Aug | |
| Northern hawthorn | Crategus rotundifolia | May-Jun | |
| Prairie smoke | Geum triflorum | Apr-Jun | |
| Wild plum | Prunus americana | Apr-May | |
| Rush | Wiregrass | Juncus dudleyi | May-Sep |
| Spiderwort | Common spiderwort | Tradescantia bracteata | May-Aug |
| Spurge | Spurge | Euphorbia dentata, E. esula, E. marginata, E. stictospora | Jun-Oct |
| Stonecrop | Stonecrop | Sedum lanceolatum | Jun-Aug |
| Sunflower | Black-eyed Susan | Rudbeckia hirta | May-Sep |
| Blue, Smooth aster | Aster laevis | Aug-Oct | |
| Curlycup gumweed | Grindelia squarrosa | Jul-Oct | |
| Cutleaf ironplant | Halopapus spinulosus | May-Sep | |
| Dotted gayfeather | Liatris punctata | Jul-Oct | |
| False boneset | Kuhnia eupatorioides | Aug-Oct | |
| False dandelion | Microseris cuspidata | Apr-Jun | |
| Fetid marigold | Dyssodia papposa | Jul-Sep | |
| Field sow thistle | Sonchus arvensis | Jul-Sep | |
| Smooth Fleabane | Erigeron glabellus | Jun-Jul | |
| Goat chickory | Agoseris glauca | May-Jun | |
| Golden aster | Chrysopsis villosa | Jul-Sep | |
| Goldenrod | Solidago canadensis, S. misouriensis, S. nemoralis | Jul-Oct | |
| Purple coneflower | Echinacea angustifolia | Jun-Jul | |
| Pussytoes | Antennaria microphylla, A. parviflora | May-Jul | |
| Sagewort | Artemisia filifolia, A. frigida, A. ludoviciana | Jun-Oct | |
| Skeleton weed | Lygodesmia juncea | Jun-Sep | |
| Snakeweed | Gutiarrezia sorothrae | Aug-Oct | |
| Spotted knapweed | Centaurea maculosa | May-Sep | |
| Spreading fleabane | Conyza ramosissima | Jun-Sep | |
| Sunflower | Helianthus annuus, H. rigidus | Jul-Oct | |
| Thelesperma | Thelesperma megapotamicum | May-Sep | |
| Thistle | Circium arvense, C. undulatum | May-Sep | |
| Western ragweed | Ambrosia psilostachya | Jun-Oct | |
| Western salsify | Tragopogon dubius | May-Jun | |
| Western yarrow | Achillea millefolium | May-Oct | |
| Verbena | Hoary vervain | Verbena stricta | May-Sep |
| Violet | Prairie violet | Viola pedatifida | Apr-Jun |
| Yellow prairie violet | Viola nuttallii | May-Jun | |
| Waterleaf | Waterpod | Ellisia nyctelea | May-Jul |
| Family Name | Common Name | Scientific Name | Bloom |
| Agave | Small soapweed | Yucca glauca | May-Jun |
| Bean | American vetch | Vicia americana | May-Jun |
| Breadroot scurfpea | Psoralea esculenta | May-Jul | |
| False indigo | Amorpha fruticosa | May-Jun | |
| Golden prairie clover | Dalea aurea | Jun-Sep | |
| Ground-plum | Astragalus crassicarpus | Mar-Jun | |
| Leadplant | Amorpha canescens | May-Aug | |
| Prairie goldenpea | Thermopsis rhombifolia | Apr-Jun | |
| Purple locoweed | Oxytropis lambertii | May-Aug | |
| Slender locoweed | Oxtropis campestris | May-Jul | |
| White prairie clover | Dalea candida | May-Aug | |
| Wild licorice | Glycyrrhiza lepidota | May-Aug | |
| Bellflower | Harebell | Campanula rotundifolia | Jun-Sep |
| Borage | False gromwell | Onosmodium molle | Apr-Jun |
| Gromwell | Lithospermum incisum | Jun-Jul | |
| Lanceleaf bluebells | Mertensia lanceolata | Apr-Jun | |
| Buttercup | Crowfoot, Buttercup | Ranunculus glaberrimus | Apr-Jun |
| Early wood buttercup | Ranunculus abortivus | Apr-Jun | |
| Pasqueflower | Anemone patens | Apr-Jun | |
| Tall anemone | Anemone virginiana | Jun-Jul | |
| Caper | Rocky Mountain beeplant | Cleome serrulata | Jun-Aug |
| Cashew | Poison ivy | Toxicodendron rydbergii | May-Sep |
| Skunkbush | Rhus aromatica | Apr-May | |
| Currant | Golden currant | Ribes odoratum | Apr-May |
| Cypress | Common juniper | Juniperus cammunis | May-Jun |
| Evening Primrose | Evening primrose | Oenothera biennis | Jul-Oct |
| Velvety gaura | Gaura parviflora | May-Oct | |
| Yellow primrose | Calylophus serulatus | May-Sep | |
| Figwort | Large beardtongue | Penstemon grandifloras | Apr-Jul |
| Monkeyflower | Mimulus floribundus | May-Jul | |
| Grape | Virginia creeper | Parthenocissus quinquefolia | May-Jul |
| Woodbine | Parthenocissus vitacea | May-Jul | |
| Heath | Bearberry | Arctostaphylos uva-ursi | May-Jul |
| Pinedrops | Pterospora andromedea | Jul-Sep | |
| Honeysuckle | Stinking elderberry | Sambucus racemosa | May-Jun |
| Western snowberry | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Jun-Aug | |
| White coralberry | Symphoricarpos albus | Jun-Jul | |
| Iris | Western blueflag | Iris missouriensis | Jun-Jul |
| Lilly | Death camus | Zigadenus venosus | May-Jul |
| Mountain lily | Leucocrinum montanum | Apr-Jun | |
| Sago lily | Calochortus gunnisonii | Jul-Aug | |
| Spikenard | Smilacina stellata | May-Jun | |
| Wild onion | Allium cernuum, A. geyeri, A. textile | May-Jul | |
| Wood lily | Lilium philadelphicum | Jul-Aug | |
| Madder | Catchweed bedstraw | Galium aparine | May-Aug |
| Northern bedstraw | Galium boreale | Jun-Sep | |
| Sweetscentted bedstraw | Galium triflorum | May-Sep | |
| Milkweed | Whorled milkweed | Asclepias verticillata | Jun-Sep |
| Milkwort | White milkwort | Polygala alba | May-Aug |
| Whorled milkwort | Polygala verticillata | May-Oct | |
| Mint | Selfheal | Prunella vulgaris | May-Oct |
| Mustard | Bitter cress | Cardamine pennsylvanica | Apr-Jun |
| Dames rocket | Hesperis matronalis | May-Aug | |
| Nightshade | Common groundcherry | Physalis longifolia | May-Sep |
| Virgina roundcherry | Physalis virginiana | May-Sep | |
| Oleaster | Rabbitberry | Shepherdia canadensis | May-Jun |
| Parsley | Cow parsnip | Heracleum sphondylium | May-Jul |
| Narrow-leaved musineon | Musineon tenuifolium | May-Jun | |
| Pink | Common chickweed | Stellaria media | Mar-Oct |
| Mouse-ears | Cerastium vulgatum | Apr-Oct | |
| Pine | Ponderosa pine | Pinus ponderosa | May-Jun |
| Primrose | Rock jasmine | Androsace occidentalis | Mar-Jun |
| Rose | Cinquefoil | Potentilla hippiana | Jun-Aug |
| Gland cinquefoil | Potentilla glandulosa | Jun-Aug | |
| Prairie smoke | Geum triflorum | Apr-Jun | |
| Red raspberry | Rubus idaeus | May-Jul | |
| Tall cinquefoil | Potentilla arguta | Jun-Aug | |
| White avens | Geum candense | Apr-Jun | |
| Spurge | Carpetweed | Euphorbia stictospora | Jun-Oct |
| Leafy spurge | Suphorbia esula | May-Sep | |
| Sunflower | Canada thistle | Circium arvense | Jun-Aug |
| Canada goldenrod | Solidago canadensis | Jul-Sep | |
| Fleabane | Erigeron subtrinervis | Jul-Sep | |
| Pearly everlasting | Anaphlis margaritaceae | Jul-Oct | |
| Pink pussytoes | Antennaria microphylla | May-Jul | |
| Prairie goldenrod | Solidago missouriensis | Jul-Oct | |
| Prickly lettus | Lactuca serriola | Jun-Sep | |
| Pussytoes | Antennaria parvifolia | May-Jul | |
| Spotted Joe-pye weed | Eupatorium maculatum | Jul-Sep | |
| Three-nerve fleabane | Erigeron subtrinervis | Jul-Aug | |
| Western yarrow | Achillea millefolium | May-Oct | |
| Verbena | Blue vervain | Verbena hastata | Jun-Oct |
| Loopseed | Phyrma leptostachya | Jun-Sep | |
| Violet | Canada violet | Viola canadensis | May-Aug |
| Downy yellow violet | Viola pubescens | Mar-Jun | |
| Waterleaf | Waterpod | Ellisia nyctelea | May-Jul |
| Family Name | Common Name | Scientific Name | Bloom |
| Bean | American vetch | Vicia americana | May-Jun |
| Black medick | Alfalfa Medicago lupulina | Apr-Nov | |
| Breadroot scurfpea | Psoralea esculenta | May-Jul | |
| False indigo | Amorpha fruticosa | May-Jun | |
| Golden prairie clover | Dalea aurea | Jun-Sep | |
| Ground-plum | Astragalus crassicarpus | Aug-Oct | |
| Lupine, Bluebonnet | Lupinus argenteus | Jun-Aug | |
| Missouri milkvetch | Astragalus missouriensis | Mar-Jul | |
| Purple prairie clover | Dalea purpurea | Jun-Aug | |
| Wild licorice | Glycyrrhiza lepidota | May-Aug | |
| Bellflower | Harebell | Campanula rotundifolia | Jun-Sep |
| Borage | Lanceleaf bluebells | Mertensia lanceolata | Apr-Jun |
| Buttercup | Early wood buttercup | Ranunculus abortivus | Apr-Jun |
| Cashew | Poison ivy | Toxicodendron rydbergii | May-Sep |
| Skunkbush | Rhus aromatica | Apr-May | |
| Cattail | Roadleft cattail | Typha latifolia | May-Jul |
| Currant | Golden currant | Ribes odoratum | Apr-May |
| Evening Primrose | Common evening primrose | Oenothera villosa | Jul-Oct |
| Pale evening primrose | Oenothera albicaulis | Apr-Aug | |
| Yellow primrose | Calylophus serulatus | May-Sep | |
| Figwort | Downy paintbrush | Castillega sessiliflora | Apr-Jun |
| Monkeyflower | Mimulus floribundus | May-Jul | |
| Goosefoot | Poverty weed | Monolepsis nuttalliana | Apr-Sep |
| Grape | Virginia creeper | Parthenocissus quinquefolia | May-Jul |
| Woodbine | Parthenocissus vitacea | May-Jul | |
| Honeysuckle | Stinking elderberry | Sambucus racemosa | May-Jun |
| Western snowberry | Symphoricarpos occidentalis | Jun-Aug | |
| Iris | Western blueflag | Iris missouriensis | Jun-Jul |
| Lilly | Spikenard | Smilacina stellata | May-Jun |
| Wild onion | Allium cernuum, A. geyeri, A. textile | May-Jul | |
| Wood lily | Lilium philadelphicum | Jul-Aug | |
| Madder | Sweetscented bedstraw | Galium triflorum | May-Sep |
| Maple | Box elder | Acer negundo | Apr-May |
| Milkweed | Showy milkweed | Asclepias speciosa | May-Aug |
| Swamp milkweed | Asclepias incarnata | Jun-Sep | |
| Mint | Catnip | Nepeta cateria | Jun-Oct |
| Field mint | Mentha arvensis | Jul-Sep | |
| Hedgenettle | Stachys palustris | Jun-Sep | |
| Marsh skullcap | Scutellaria galericulata | Jul-Aug | |
| Selfheal | Prunella vulgaris | May-Oct | |
| Mustard | Bitter cress | Cardamine pennsylvanica | Apr-Jun |
| Western wallflower | Erysimum asperum | Apr-Jun | |
| Nightshade | Buffalo bur | Solanum rostratum | May-Oct |
| Common groundcherry | Physalis longifolia | May-Sep | |
| Virgina roundcherry | Physalis virginiana | May-Sep | |
| Oleaster | Rabbitberry | Shepherdia canadensis | May-Jun |
| Parsley | Cow parsnip | Heracleum sphondylium | May-Jul |
| Cymopterus | Cymopterus montanus | Mar-May | |
| Poison hemlock | Conium maculatum | May-Jul | |
| Pigweed | Prostrate pigweed | Amaranthus graecizans | Jul-Aug |
| Rough pigweed | Amaranthus retroflexus | Jul-Aug | |
| Rose | Red raspberry | Rubus idaeus | May-Jul |
| White avens | Geum canadense | May-Oct | |
| Rush | Wiregrass | Juncus dudleyi | May-Sep |
| Sedge | Soft-stem bulrush | Scirpus validus | Unknown |
| Spiderwort | Common spiderwort | Tradescantia bracteata | May-Aug |
| Spurge | Leafy spurge | Suphorbia esula | May-Sep |
| Toothed spurge | Euphorbia dentata | May-Oct | |
| Sunflower | Black-eyed Susan | Rudbeckia hirta | May-Sep |
| Burdock | Arctium minus | Jul-Sep | |
| Canada goldenrod | Solidago canadensis | Jul-Sep | |
| Fleabane | Erigeron subtrinervis | May-Jul | |
| Joe-pye weed | Eupatorium maculatum | Jul-Sep | |
| Siskiyou aster | Aster hesperius | Aug-Oct | |
| Philadelphia fleabane | Erigeron glabellus | May-Jul | |
| Prickly lettus | Lactuca serriola | Jun-Sep | |
| Sawtooth sunflower | Herianthus grosseserratus | July-Oct | |
| Smooth feabane | Erigeron glabellus | Jun-Jul | |
| Spreading fleabane | Conyza ramosissima | Jun-Sep | |
| Verbena | Blue vervain | Verbena hastata | Jun-Oct |
| Lopseed | Phyrma leptostachya | Jun-Sep | |
| Violet | Downy yellow violet | Viola pubescens | Mar-Jun |
| Yellow prairie violet | Viola nuttalli | May-Jun |
| Family Name | Scientific Name | Habitat |
| Fruticose - lichens which are shrub-like or somewhat woody | Alectoria glabra | Ponderosa Pine |
| Cladonia chlorophaea | Soil | |
| C. coniocraea | Soil | |
| C. robbinsi | Soil | |
| Ephebe lanata | Rock | |
| Ramalina intermedia | Rock | |
| Stereocaulon albicans | Rock | |
| Usnea cavernosa | Ponderosa Pine | |
| U. fulvoreagens | Ponderosa Pine | |
| U. hirta | Ponderosa Pine | |
| Squamulose - lichens which are scaly | Lecidea rubiformis | Soil |
| L. russelli | Soil | |
| Toninia caeruleonigricans | Soil | |
| Umbilicate - lichens shaped or depressed like an umbilicus or navel | Lecanora chrysoleuca | Rock |
| L. melanopthalma | Rock | |
| Umbilicaria hyperborea | Rock | |
| U. papulosa | Rock | |
| U. torrefacta | Rock | |
| U. vella | Rock | |
| Foliosa - species covered with leaves; leafy | Caloplaca elegans | Rock |
| Candelaria concolor | American Elm | |
| Cetraria fendleri | Ponderosa Pine | |
| Parmelia chlorochoa | Soil | |
| P. cumberlandia | Rock | |
| P. laevigata | Ponderosa Pine | |
| P. sulcata | Soil | |
| P. ulophyllodes | Ponderosa Pine | |
| Pannaria pityrea | Ponderosa Pine | |
| Peltigera canina | Soil | |
| Physcia aipolia | American Elm | |
| P. caesia | Rock | |
| P. callosa | Rock | |
| P. dubia | Rock | |
| P. pulverulenta | Ponderosa Pine | |
| Platismatia glauca (Cetraria glauca) | Rock | |
| Xanthoria fallax | American Elm | |
| X. polycarpa | American Elm | |
| Crustose - lichens which have a hard and bittle texture; those pressed closely to a rocky surface | Acrospora stigmata | Rock |
| A. schleicheri | Rock | |
| Candelariella vitellina | Bison Tooth | |
| Cyphelium tigillare | Fence | |
| Dimelaena oreina (Rhinodina oreina) | Rock | |
| Holocarpa pyracea (Calolaca pyracea) | Aspen and Tooth | |
| Lecania erysibe | Rock | |
| Lecanora cinerea | Rock | |
| L. cenisia | Rock | |
| L. frustulosa | Rock | |
| Lecidella stigmatea (Lecidia stigmata) | Rock | |
| Pyrenula leucoplaca | Aspen | |
| Rhizocarpon disporum | Rock | |
| Verrucaria rupestris | Rock |
| Common Name | Scientific Name |
| American Elm | Ulmus americanaL |
| Boxelder | Acer negundoL |
| Bur Oak | Quercus macrocarpaMichx |
| Green ash | Fraxinus pennsylvanicaMarsh |
| Hackberry | Celtis occidentalisL |
| Lanceleaf cottonwood | Populus x acuminataRydb |
| Paper Birch | Betula papyriferaMarsh |
| Plains Cottonwood | Populus deltoidesRydb |
| Ponderosa Pine | Pinus ponderosaLaws |
| Quaking Aspen | Populus tremuloidesMichx |
| Rocky Mountain Juniper | Juniperus scopulorumSarg |
| Common Name | Scientific Name | Family Name | Life Form | Growth | Origin |
| Alfalfa | Medicago sativa | Fabaceae (Bean) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Alyssum (Desert Madwort) | Ayssum desertorum Stapf. | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Alyssum, Pale (Pale Madwort) | Alyssum alyssoides | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Apple, Crab | Pyrus ioensis | Rosaceae (Rose) | Perennial | Tree | |
| Asparagus, Garden | Asparagus officinalis | Lilicceae (Lily) | Perennial | Forb | |
| Barnyardgrass | Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv. | Poaceae (Grass) | Annual | Grass | Eurasia |
| Black Medick | Medicago lupulina (L.) | Fabaceae (Bean) | Annual | Forb | Eurasia |
| Bluegrass, Canadian | Poa compressa | Poaceae (Grass) | Annual | Grass | Europe |
| Bluegrass, Kentucky | Poa pratensis | Poaceae (Grass) | Perennial | Grass | Europe |
| Bouncing Bet | Saponaria officinalis | Caryophyllaceae (Pink) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Brome, Downey (Cheatgrass) | Bromus tectorum | Poaceae (Grass) | Annual | Grass | Europe Mediterranean |
| Brome, Japanese | Bromus japonicus | Poaceae (Grass) | Annual | Grass | Europe |
| Brome, Meadow | Bromus commutatus Schrad. | Poaceae (Grass) | Annual | Grass | Europe |
| Brome, Smooth | Bromus inermis | Poaceae (Grass) | Annual | Grass | Europe |
| Bindweed, Field | Convolvulus arvensis | Convolvulaceae (Morning glory) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Buckthorn, Common | Rhamnus cathartica L. | Rhamnaceae (Buckthorn) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Buckwheat, wild (climbing) | Polygonum convolvulus | Polygonaceae (Buckwheat) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Burdock | Arctium minus | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Buttercup Bur | Rannunculus testiculatus | Ranunculaceae (Buttercup) | Annual | Forb | Eurasia |
| Buttercup, Tall | Ranunculus acris | Ranunculaceae (Buttercup) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Campion, Bladder | Silene vulgaris | Caryophyllaceae (Pink) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Campion, White | Silene pratensis | Caryophyllaceae (Pink) | Perennial Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Carrot, Wild | Daucus carota | Apiaceae (Parsley) | Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Catnip | Nepeta cataria | Lamiaceae (Mint) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Chickweed, big (mouse-ear) |
Cerastium vulgatum L. | Caryophyllaceae (Pink) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Chickweed, field (prairie) | Cerastium arvense | Caryophyllaceae (Pink) | Perennial | Forb | |
| Clover, rabbitfoot (crimson) | Trifolium incarnatum | Fabaceae (Bean) | Annual | Forb | Europe Mediterranean |
| Corn gromwell | Lithopermum arvense | Boraginaceae (Borage) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Cowcockle | Vaccaria pyramidata | Caryophyllaceae (Pink) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Creeping Bellflower | Campanula rapunculoides | Campanulaceae (Bluebell) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Daisy, Engelmann's | Engelmannia pinnatifida | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Perennial | Forb | |
| Dames Rocket | Hesperis matronalis | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Biennial | Forb | Europe Mediterranean |
| Dandelion, Common | Taraxacum officinale | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Deptford pink | Dianthus armeria L. | Caryophyllaceae (Pink) | Annual or Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Dock, Curly | Rumex crispus | Polygonaceae (Buckwheat) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Elm, Siberian | Ullmus pumila | Ulmaceae (Elm) | Perennial | Tree | Asia |
| Falseflax, littlepod (small-seeded) | Camelina microcarpa DC. | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Flax, Blue | Linum perenne | Linaceae (Flax) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia (?) |
| Flixweed | Descurainia sophia | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual | Forb | Eurasia |
| Foxtail, Green | Setaria viridis | Poaceae (Grass) | Annual | Grass | Europe |
| Geranium, small | Geranium pusillum L. | Balsaminaceae (Touch-Me-Not) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Gooseberry, Currant | Ribes aureum var. villosum | Grossulariaceae (Currant) | Annual | Shrub | |
| Hemlock, Poison | Conium maculatum | Apiaceae (Parsley) | Biennial | Forb | Eurasia Africa |
| Hempnettle, splitlip | Galeopsis bifida Boenn. | Lamiaceae (Mint) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Henbane, Black | Hyoscyamus niger | Solanaceae (Nightshade) | Annual Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Hogweed, little (Common Purslane) |
Portulaca oleraceaL. | Portulacaceae (Purslane) | Annual Perennial | Forb | Asia |
| Hollyhock | Althaea rosea | Malvaceae (Mallow) | Perennial Biennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Hops, Common | Humulus lupulu | Cannabaceae (Hemp) | Perennial | Forb | Asia |
| Horehound | Marrubium vulgare | Lamiaceae (Mint) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Houndstongue | Cynoglossum officinale | Boraginaceae (Borage) | Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Knapweed, Russian | Centaurea repens | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Knapweed, Spotted | Centaurea maculosa | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Perennial Biennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Kochia Mexican Firebush | Kochia scoparia | Chenopodiaceae (Goosefoot) | Annual | Forb | Eurasia |
| Lamb's quarter | Chenopodium album | Chenopodiaceae (Goosefoot) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Lettuce, Prickly | Lactuca serriola L. | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Lilac, Common | Syringa vulgaris | Oleaceae (Olive) | Perennial | Shrub | Mediterranean (?) |
| Lopseed, American | Phryma leptostachys L. | Verbenaceae (Vervain) | Perennial | Forb | |
| Motherwort | Leonurus cardiaca | Lamiaceae (Mint) | Perennial Biennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Mullein, Common | Verbascum thapsus | Scrophulariaceae (Figwort) | Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Mustard, Blue | Chorispora tenella | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual | Forb | Eurasia Asia |
| Mustard, Tumbling | Sisymbrium altissimus | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Nightshade, visscid (hairy) | Solanum sarrachoides | Solanaceae (Potato or Nightshade) | Annual | Forb | South America |
| Olive, Russian | Elaeagnus agustifolia | Elaeagnaceae (Oleaster) | Perennial | Shrub Small Tree | Eurasia |
| Orchard grass | Dactylis glomerata | Poaceae (Grass) | Perennial | Grass | Europe Asia |
| Pennycress, Field | Thlaspi arvense | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Peppergrass, Field | Lepidium campestre | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Peppergrass, Clasping | Lepidium perfoliatum | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Pigweed, Rough (Redroot) | Amaranthus retroflexus | Amaranthaceae (Pigweed) | Annual | Forb | |
| Pimpernel, Scarlet (Poorman's Weatherglass) |
Anagallis avensis L. | Primulaceae (Primrose) | Annual Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Plantain, Common | Plantago major | Plantaginaceae (Plantain) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Quackgrass | Agropyron repens | Poaceae (Grass) | Perennial | Grass | Europe Asia |
| Sage, Azure blue | Salvia azurea Michx. Ex Lam | Lamiaceae (Mint) | Perennial | Forb | |
| Salsify, Meadow | Tragopogon pratensis L. | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Biennial Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Salsify, Western (Goat's beard) |
Tragopogon dubius | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Perennial Biennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Shepherd's Purse | Capsella bursa-pastoris | Brassicaceae (Mustard) | Annual Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Sowthistle, Field (Perennial) | Sonchus arvensis | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Sowthistle, Prickly | Sonchus asper | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Annual | Forb | Europe |
| Speedwell, corn | Veronica arvensis | Scrophulariaceae (Figwort) | Annual | Forb | Eurasia |
| Spurge, Leafy | Euphorbia esula | Euphorbiaceae (Spurge) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Stinkgrass | Eragrostis cilianensis | Poaceae (Grass) | Annual | Grass | Europe |
| Sweetclover, White | Melilotus alba | Leguminosae (Pea) | Annual Biennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Sweetclover, Yellow | Melilotus officinalis | Leguminosae (Pea) | Annual Biennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Tansy, Common | Tanacetum vulgare | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Teasel | Dipsacus sylvestris | Dipsacaceae (Teasel) | Biennial | Forb | Europe |
| Thistle, Bull | Cirsium vulgare | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Biennial | Forb | Europe Eurasia |
| Thistle, Canada | Cirsium arvense | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia Africa |
| Thistle, Musk | Cardus nutans | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Annual Biennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Thistle, Russian (Tumbleweed) | Salsola iberica | Chenopodiaceae (Goosefoot) | Annual | Forb | Eurasia |
| Thistle, Scotch | Onopordum acanthium | Asteraceae (Sunflower) | Biennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Timothy, Common | Phleim pratense | Poaceae (Grass) | Perennial | Forb | Europe |
| Toadflax, Yellow (Butter and Eggs) |
Linaria vulgaris | Scrophulariaceae (Figwort) | Perennial | Forb | Eurasia |
| Wheatgrass, Crested | Agropyron cristatum | Poaceae (Grass) | Perennial | Grass | Russia |
| Wheatgrass Intermediate | Agropyron intermedium | Poaceae (Grass) | Perennial | Grass | Europe |
| Wheatgrass Tall | Agropyron elongatum | Poaceae (Grass) | Perennial | Grass | Mediterranean |
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